-/* A sometimes minimal FORTH interpreter for Linux / i386 systems. -*- asm -*-
- * By Richard W.M. Jones <rich@annexia.org>
- *
- * gcc -m32 -nostdlib -static -Wl,-Ttext,0 -o jonesforth jonesforth.S
- */
+/* A sometimes minimal FORTH compiler and tutorial for Linux / i386 systems. -*- asm -*-
+ By Richard W.M. Jones <rich@annexia.org> http://annexia.org/forth
+ This is PUBLIC DOMAIN (see public domain release statement below).
+ $Id: jonesforth.S,v 1.47 2009-09-11 08:33:13 rich Exp $
+
+ gcc -m32 -nostdlib -static -Wl,-Ttext,0 -Wl,--build-id=none -o jonesforth jonesforth.S
+*/
+ .set JONES_VERSION,47
+/*
+ INTRODUCTION ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ FORTH is one of those alien languages which most working programmers regard in the same
+ way as Haskell, LISP, and so on. Something so strange that they'd rather any thoughts
+ of it just go away so they can get on with writing this paying code. But that's wrong
+ and if you care at all about programming then you should at least understand all these
+ languages, even if you will never use them.
+
+ LISP is the ultimate high-level language, and features from LISP are being added every
+ decade to the more common languages. But FORTH is in some ways the ultimate in low level
+ programming. Out of the box it lacks features like dynamic memory management and even
+ strings. In fact, at its primitive level it lacks even basic concepts like IF-statements
+ and loops.
+
+ Why then would you want to learn FORTH? There are several very good reasons. First
+ and foremost, FORTH is minimal. You really can write a complete FORTH in, say, 2000
+ lines of code. I don't just mean a FORTH program, I mean a complete FORTH operating
+ system, environment and language. You could boot such a FORTH on a bare PC and it would
+ come up with a prompt where you could start doing useful work. The FORTH you have here
+ isn't minimal and uses a Linux process as its 'base PC' (both for the purposes of making
+ it a good tutorial). It's possible to completely understand the system. Who can say they
+ completely understand how Linux works, or gcc?
+
+ Secondly FORTH has a peculiar bootstrapping property. By that I mean that after writing
+ a little bit of assembly to talk to the hardware and implement a few primitives, all the
+ rest of the language and compiler is written in FORTH itself. Remember I said before
+ that FORTH lacked IF-statements and loops? Well of course it doesn't really because
+ such a lanuage would be useless, but my point was rather that IF-statements and loops are
+ written in FORTH itself.
+
+ Now of course this is common in other languages as well, and in those languages we call
+ them 'libraries'. For example in C, 'printf' is a library function written in C. But
+ in FORTH this goes way beyond mere libraries. Can you imagine writing C's 'if' in C?
+ And that brings me to my third reason: If you can write 'if' in FORTH, then why restrict
+ yourself to the usual if/while/for/switch constructs? You want a construct that iterates
+ over every other element in a list of numbers? You can add it to the language. What
+ about an operator which pulls in variables directly from a configuration file and makes
+ them available as FORTH variables? Or how about adding Makefile-like dependencies to
+ the language? No problem in FORTH. How about modifying the FORTH compiler to allow
+ complex inlining strategies -- simple. This concept isn't common in programming languages,
+ but it has a name (in fact two names): "macros" (by which I mean LISP-style macros, not
+ the lame C preprocessor) and "domain specific languages" (DSLs).
+
+ This tutorial isn't about learning FORTH as the language. I'll point you to some references
+ you should read if you're not familiar with using FORTH. This tutorial is about how to
+ write FORTH. In fact, until you understand how FORTH is written, you'll have only a very
+ superficial understanding of how to use it.
+
+ So if you're not familiar with FORTH or want to refresh your memory here are some online
+ references to read:
+
+ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth_%28programming_language%29
+
+ http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/551.jvn.fall01/primer.htm
+
+ http://wiki.laptop.org/go/Forth_Lessons
+
+ http://www.albany.net/~hello/simple.htm
+
+ Here is another "Why FORTH?" essay: http://www.jwdt.com/~paysan/why-forth.html
+
+ Discussion and criticism of this FORTH here: http://lambda-the-ultimate.org/node/2452
+
+ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ This code draws heavily on the design of LINA FORTH (http://home.hccnet.nl/a.w.m.van.der.horst/lina.html)
+ by Albert van der Horst. Any similarities in the code are probably not accidental.
+
+ Some parts of this FORTH are also based on this IOCCC entry from 1992:
+ http://ftp.funet.fi/pub/doc/IOCCC/1992/buzzard.2.design.
+ I was very proud when Sean Barrett, the original author of the IOCCC entry, commented in the LtU thread
+ http://lambda-the-ultimate.org/node/2452#comment-36818 about this FORTH.
+
+ And finally I'd like to acknowledge the (possibly forgotten?) authors of ARTIC FORTH because their
+ original program which I still have on original cassette tape kept nagging away at me all these years.
+ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artic_Software
+
+ PUBLIC DOMAIN ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ I, the copyright holder of this work, hereby release it into the public domain. This applies worldwide.
+
+ In case this is not legally possible, I grant any entity the right to use this work for any purpose,
+ without any conditions, unless such conditions are required by law.
+
+ SETTING UP ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Let's get a few housekeeping things out of the way. Firstly because I need to draw lots of
+ ASCII-art diagrams to explain concepts, the best way to look at this is using a window which
+ uses a fixed width font and is at least this wide:
+
+ <------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------>
+
+ Secondly make sure TABS are set to 8 characters. The following should be a vertical
+ line. If not, sort out your tabs.
+
+ |
+ |
+ |
+
+ Thirdly I assume that your screen is at least 50 characters high.
+
+ ASSEMBLING ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ If you want to actually run this FORTH, rather than just read it, you will need Linux on an
+ i386. Linux because instead of programming directly to the hardware on a bare PC which I
+ could have done, I went for a simpler tutorial by assuming that the 'hardware' is a Linux
+ process with a few basic system calls (read, write and exit and that's about all). i386
+ is needed because I had to write the assembly for a processor, and i386 is by far the most
+ common. (Of course when I say 'i386', any 32- or 64-bit x86 processor will do. I'm compiling
+ this on a 64 bit AMD Opteron).
+
+ Again, to assemble this you will need gcc and gas (the GNU assembler). The commands to
+ assemble and run the code (save this file as 'jonesforth.S') are:
-#include <asm-i386/unistd.h>
+ gcc -m32 -nostdlib -static -Wl,-Ttext,0 -Wl,--build-id=none -o jonesforth jonesforth.S
+ cat jonesforth.f - | ./jonesforth
-/* NOTES-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ If you want to run your own FORTH programs you can do:
-Need to say something about $ before constants.
+ cat jonesforth.f myprog.f | ./jonesforth
-And about je/jne/ja/jb/jbe/etc
+ If you want to load your own FORTH code and then continue reading user commands, you can do:
+ cat jonesforth.f myfunctions.f - | ./jonesforth
+ ASSEMBLER ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+ (You can just skip to the next section -- you don't need to be able to read assembler to
+ follow this tutorial).
+ However if you do want to read the assembly code here are a few notes about gas (the GNU assembler):
+
+ (1) Register names are prefixed with '%', so %eax is the 32 bit i386 accumulator. The registers
+ available on i386 are: %eax, %ebx, %ecx, %edx, %esi, %edi, %ebp and %esp, and most of them
+ have special purposes.
+
+ (2) Add, mov, etc. take arguments in the form SRC,DEST. So mov %eax,%ecx moves %eax -> %ecx
+
+ (3) Constants are prefixed with '$', and you mustn't forget it! If you forget it then it
+ causes a read from memory instead, so:
+ mov $2,%eax moves number 2 into %eax
+ mov 2,%eax reads the 32 bit word from address 2 into %eax (ie. most likely a mistake)
+
+ (4) gas has a funky syntax for local labels, where '1f' (etc.) means label '1:' "forwards"
+ and '1b' (etc.) means label '1:' "backwards". Notice that these labels might be mistaken
+ for hex numbers (eg. you might confuse 1b with $0x1b).
+
+ (5) 'ja' is "jump if above", 'jb' for "jump if below", 'je' "jump if equal" etc.
+
+ (6) gas has a reasonably nice .macro syntax, and I use them a lot to make the code shorter and
+ less repetitive.
+
+ For more help reading the assembler, do "info gas" at the Linux prompt.
+
+ Now the tutorial starts in earnest.
+
+ THE DICTIONARY ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ In FORTH as you will know, functions are called "words", and just as in other languages they
+ have a name and a definition. Here are two FORTH words:
+
+ : DOUBLE DUP + ; \ name is "DOUBLE", definition is "DUP +"
+ : QUADRUPLE DOUBLE DOUBLE ; \ name is "QUADRUPLE", definition is "DOUBLE DOUBLE"
+
+ Words, both built-in ones and ones which the programmer defines later, are stored in a dictionary
+ which is just a linked list of dictionary entries.
+
+ <--- DICTIONARY ENTRY (HEADER) ----------------------->
+ +------------------------+--------+---------- - - - - +----------- - - - -
+ | LINK POINTER | LENGTH/| NAME | DEFINITION
+ | | FLAGS | |
+ +--- (4 bytes) ----------+- byte -+- n bytes - - - - +----------- - - - -
+
+ I'll come to the definition of the word later. For now just look at the header. The first
+ 4 bytes are the link pointer. This points back to the previous word in the dictionary, or, for
+ the first word in the dictionary it is just a NULL pointer. Then comes a length/flags byte.
+ The length of the word can be up to 31 characters (5 bits used) and the top three bits are used
+ for various flags which I'll come to later. This is followed by the name itself, and in this
+ implementation the name is rounded up to a multiple of 4 bytes by padding it with zero bytes.
+ That's just to ensure that the definition starts on a 32 bit boundary.
+
+ A FORTH variable called LATEST contains a pointer to the most recently defined word, in
+ other words, the head of this linked list.
+
+ DOUBLE and QUADRUPLE might look like this:
+
+ pointer to previous word
+ ^
+ |
+ +--|------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------- - - - -
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | (definition ...)
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------- - - - -
+ ^ len padding
+ |
+ +--|------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------- - - - -
+ | LINK | 9 | Q | U | A | D | R | U | P | L | E | 0 | 0 | (definition ...)
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------- - - - -
+ ^ len padding
+ |
+ |
+ LATEST
+
+ You should be able to see from this how you might implement functions to find a word in
+ the dictionary (just walk along the dictionary entries starting at LATEST and matching
+ the names until you either find a match or hit the NULL pointer at the end of the dictionary);
+ and add a word to the dictionary (create a new definition, set its LINK to LATEST, and set
+ LATEST to point to the new word). We'll see precisely these functions implemented in
+ assembly code later on.
+
+ One interesting consequence of using a linked list is that you can redefine words, and
+ a newer definition of a word overrides an older one. This is an important concept in
+ FORTH because it means that any word (even "built-in" or "standard" words) can be
+ overridden with a new definition, either to enhance it, to make it faster or even to
+ disable it. However because of the way that FORTH words get compiled, which you'll
+ understand below, words defined using the old definition of a word continue to use
+ the old definition. Only words defined after the new definition use the new definition.
+
+ DIRECT THREADED CODE ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Now we'll get to the really crucial bit in understanding FORTH, so go and get a cup of tea
+ or coffee and settle down. It's fair to say that if you don't understand this section, then you
+ won't "get" how FORTH works, and that would be a failure on my part for not explaining it well.
+ So if after reading this section a few times you don't understand it, please email me
+ (rich@annexia.org).
+
+ Let's talk first about what "threaded code" means. Imagine a peculiar version of C where
+ you are only allowed to call functions without arguments. (Don't worry for now that such a
+ language would be completely useless!) So in our peculiar C, code would look like this:
+
+ f ()
+ {
+ a ();
+ b ();
+ c ();
+ }
+
+ and so on. How would a function, say 'f' above, be compiled by a standard C compiler?
+ Probably into assembly code like this. On the right hand side I've written the actual
+ i386 machine code.
+
+ f:
+ CALL a E8 08 00 00 00
+ CALL b E8 1C 00 00 00
+ CALL c E8 2C 00 00 00
+ ; ignore the return from the function for now
+
+ "E8" is the x86 machine code to "CALL" a function. In the first 20 years of computing
+ memory was hideously expensive and we might have worried about the wasted space being used
+ by the repeated "E8" bytes. We can save 20% in code size (and therefore, in expensive memory)
+ by compressing this into just:
+
+ 08 00 00 00 Just the function addresses, without
+ 1C 00 00 00 the CALL prefix.
+ 2C 00 00 00
+
+ On a 16-bit machine like the ones which originally ran FORTH the savings are even greater - 33%.
+
+ [Historical note: If the execution model that FORTH uses looks strange from the following
+ paragraphs, then it was motivated entirely by the need to save memory on early computers.
+ This code compression isn't so important now when our machines have more memory in their L1
+ caches than those early computers had in total, but the execution model still has some
+ useful properties].
+
+ Of course this code won't run directly on the CPU any more. Instead we need to write an
+ interpreter which takes each set of bytes and calls it.
+
+ On an i386 machine it turns out that we can write this interpreter rather easily, in just
+ two assembly instructions which turn into just 3 bytes of machine code. Let's store the
+ pointer to the next word to execute in the %esi register:
+
+ 08 00 00 00 <- We're executing this one now. %esi is the _next_ one to execute.
+ %esi -> 1C 00 00 00
+ 2C 00 00 00
+
+ The all-important i386 instruction is called LODSL (or in Intel manuals, LODSW). It does
+ two things. Firstly it reads the memory at %esi into the accumulator (%eax). Secondly it
+ increments %esi by 4 bytes. So after LODSL, the situation now looks like this:
+
+ 08 00 00 00 <- We're still executing this one
+ 1C 00 00 00 <- %eax now contains this address (0x0000001C)
+ %esi -> 2C 00 00 00
+
+ Now we just need to jump to the address in %eax. This is again just a single x86 instruction
+ written JMP *(%eax). And after doing the jump, the situation looks like:
+
+ 08 00 00 00
+ 1C 00 00 00 <- Now we're executing this subroutine.
+ %esi -> 2C 00 00 00
+
+ To make this work, each subroutine is followed by the two instructions 'LODSL; JMP *(%eax)'
+ which literally make the jump to the next subroutine.
+
+ And that brings us to our first piece of actual code! Well, it's a macro.
*/
/* NEXT macro. */
jmp *(%eax)
.endm
+/* The macro is called NEXT. That's a FORTH-ism. It expands to those two instructions.
+
+ Every FORTH primitive that we write has to be ended by NEXT. Think of it kind of like
+ a return.
+
+ The above describes what is known as direct threaded code.
+
+ To sum up: We compress our function calls down to a list of addresses and use a somewhat
+ magical macro to act as a "jump to next function in the list". We also use one register (%esi)
+ to act as a kind of instruction pointer, pointing to the next function in the list.
+
+ I'll just give you a hint of what is to come by saying that a FORTH definition such as:
+
+ : QUADRUPLE DOUBLE DOUBLE ;
+
+ actually compiles (almost, not precisely but we'll see why in a moment) to a list of
+ function addresses for DOUBLE, DOUBLE and a special function called EXIT to finish off.
+
+ At this point, REALLY EAGLE-EYED ASSEMBLY EXPERTS are saying "JONES, YOU'VE MADE A MISTAKE!".
+
+ I lied about JMP *(%eax).
+
+ INDIRECT THREADED CODE ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ It turns out that direct threaded code is interesting but only if you want to just execute
+ a list of functions written in assembly language. So QUADRUPLE would work only if DOUBLE
+ was an assembly language function. In the direct threaded code, QUADRUPLE would look like:
+
+ +------------------+
+ | addr of DOUBLE --------------------> (assembly code to do the double)
+ +------------------+ NEXT
+ %esi -> | addr of DOUBLE |
+ +------------------+
+
+ We can add an extra indirection to allow us to run both words written in assembly language
+ (primitives written for speed) and words written in FORTH themselves as lists of addresses.
+
+ The extra indirection is the reason for the brackets in JMP *(%eax).
+
+ Let's have a look at how QUADRUPLE and DOUBLE really look in FORTH:
+
+ : QUADRUPLE DOUBLE DOUBLE ;
+
+ +------------------+
+ | codeword | : DOUBLE DUP + ;
+ +------------------+
+ | addr of DOUBLE ---------------> +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | codeword |
+ | addr of DOUBLE | +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | addr of DUP --------------> +------------------+
+ | addr of EXIT | +------------------+ | codeword -------+
+ +------------------+ %esi -> | addr of + --------+ +------------------+ |
+ +------------------+ | | assembly to <-----+
+ | addr of EXIT | | | implement DUP |
+ +------------------+ | | .. |
+ | | .. |
+ | | NEXT |
+ | +------------------+
+ |
+ +-----> +------------------+
+ | codeword -------+
+ +------------------+ |
+ | assembly to <------+
+ | implement + |
+ | .. |
+ | .. |
+ | NEXT |
+ +------------------+
+
+ This is the part where you may need an extra cup of tea/coffee/favourite caffeinated
+ beverage. What has changed is that I've added an extra pointer to the beginning of
+ the definitions. In FORTH this is sometimes called the "codeword". The codeword is
+ a pointer to the interpreter to run the function. For primitives written in
+ assembly language, the "interpreter" just points to the actual assembly code itself.
+ They don't need interpreting, they just run.
+
+ In words written in FORTH (like QUADRUPLE and DOUBLE), the codeword points to an interpreter
+ function.
+
+ I'll show you the interpreter function shortly, but let's recall our indirect
+ JMP *(%eax) with the "extra" brackets. Take the case where we're executing DOUBLE
+ as shown, and DUP has been called. Note that %esi is pointing to the address of +
+
+ The assembly code for DUP eventually does a NEXT. That:
+
+ (1) reads the address of + into %eax %eax points to the codeword of +
+ (2) increments %esi by 4
+ (3) jumps to the indirect %eax jumps to the address in the codeword of +,
+ ie. the assembly code to implement +
+
+ +------------------+
+ | codeword |
+ +------------------+
+ | addr of DOUBLE ---------------> +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | codeword |
+ | addr of DOUBLE | +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | addr of DUP --------------> +------------------+
+ | addr of EXIT | +------------------+ | codeword -------+
+ +------------------+ | addr of + --------+ +------------------+ |
+ +------------------+ | | assembly to <-----+
+ %esi -> | addr of EXIT | | | implement DUP |
+ +------------------+ | | .. |
+ | | .. |
+ | | NEXT |
+ | +------------------+
+ |
+ +-----> +------------------+
+ | codeword -------+
+ +------------------+ |
+ now we're | assembly to <-----+
+ executing | implement + |
+ this | .. |
+ function | .. |
+ | NEXT |
+ +------------------+
+
+ So I hope that I've convinced you that NEXT does roughly what you'd expect. This is
+ indirect threaded code.
+
+ I've glossed over four things. I wonder if you can guess without reading on what they are?
+
+ .
+ .
+ .
+
+ My list of four things are: (1) What does "EXIT" do? (2) which is related to (1) is how do
+ you call into a function, ie. how does %esi start off pointing at part of QUADRUPLE, but
+ then point at part of DOUBLE. (3) What goes in the codeword for the words which are written
+ in FORTH? (4) How do you compile a function which does anything except call other functions
+ ie. a function which contains a number like : DOUBLE 2 * ; ?
+
+ THE INTERPRETER AND RETURN STACK ------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Going at these in no particular order, let's talk about issues (3) and (2), the interpreter
+ and the return stack.
+
+ Words which are defined in FORTH need a codeword which points to a little bit of code to
+ give them a "helping hand" in life. They don't need much, but they do need what is known
+ as an "interpreter", although it doesn't really "interpret" in the same way that, say,
+ Java bytecode used to be interpreted (ie. slowly). This interpreter just sets up a few
+ machine registers so that the word can then execute at full speed using the indirect
+ threaded model above.
+
+ One of the things that needs to happen when QUADRUPLE calls DOUBLE is that we save the old
+ %esi ("instruction pointer") and create a new one pointing to the first word in DOUBLE.
+ Because we will need to restore the old %esi at the end of DOUBLE (this is, after all, like
+ a function call), we will need a stack to store these "return addresses" (old values of %esi).
+
+ As you will have seen in the background documentation, FORTH has two stacks, an ordinary
+ stack for parameters, and a return stack which is a bit more mysterious. But our return
+ stack is just the stack I talked about in the previous paragraph, used to save %esi when
+ calling from a FORTH word into another FORTH word.
+
+ In this FORTH, we are using the normal stack pointer (%esp) for the parameter stack.
+ We will use the i386's "other" stack pointer (%ebp, usually called the "frame pointer")
+ for our return stack.
+
+ I've got two macros which just wrap up the details of using %ebp for the return stack.
+ You use them as for example "PUSHRSP %eax" (push %eax on the return stack) or "POPRSP %ebx"
+ (pop top of return stack into %ebx).
+*/
+
/* Macros to deal with the return stack. */
.macro PUSHRSP reg
lea -4(%ebp),%ebp // push reg on to return stack
lea 4(%ebp),%ebp
.endm
-/* ELF entry point. */
- .text
- .globl _start
-_start:
- cld
- mov %esp,var_S0 // Store the initial data stack pointer.
- mov $return_stack,%ebp // Initialise the return stack.
+/*
+ And with that we can now talk about the interpreter.
- mov $cold_start,%esi // Initialise interpreter.
- NEXT // Run interpreter!
+ In FORTH the interpreter function is often called DOCOL (I think it means "DO COLON" because
+ all FORTH definitions start with a colon, as in : DOUBLE DUP + ;
- .section .rodata
-cold_start: // High-level code without a codeword.
- .int COLD
+ The "interpreter" (it's not really "interpreting") just needs to push the old %esi on the
+ stack and set %esi to the first word in the definition. Remember that we jumped to the
+ function using JMP *(%eax)? Well a consequence of that is that conveniently %eax contains
+ the address of this codeword, so just by adding 4 to it we get the address of the first
+ data word. Finally after setting up %esi, it just does NEXT which causes that first word
+ to run.
+*/
/* DOCOL - the interpreter! */
.text
movl %eax,%esi // %esi point to first data word
NEXT
-/*----------------------------------------------------------------------
- * Fixed sized buffers for everything.
- */
- .bss
-
-/* FORTH return stack. */
-#define RETURN_STACK_SIZE 8192
- .align 4096
- .space RETURN_STACK_SIZE
-return_stack:
-
-/* Space for user-defined words. */
-#define USER_DEFS_SIZE 16384
- .align 4096
-user_defs_start:
- .space USER_DEFS_SIZE
-
-
+/*
+ Just to make this absolutely clear, let's see how DOCOL works when jumping from QUADRUPLE
+ into DOUBLE:
+
+ QUADRUPLE:
+ +------------------+
+ | codeword |
+ +------------------+ DOUBLE:
+ | addr of DOUBLE ---------------> +------------------+
+ +------------------+ %eax -> | addr of DOCOL |
+ %esi -> | addr of DOUBLE | +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | addr of DUP |
+ | addr of EXIT | +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | etc. |
+
+ First, the call to DOUBLE calls DOCOL (the codeword of DOUBLE). DOCOL does this: It
+ pushes the old %esi on the return stack. %eax points to the codeword of DOUBLE, so we
+ just add 4 on to it to get our new %esi:
+
+ QUADRUPLE:
+ +------------------+
+ | codeword |
+ +------------------+ DOUBLE:
+ | addr of DOUBLE ---------------> +------------------+
+top of return +------------------+ %eax -> | addr of DOCOL |
+stack points -> | addr of DOUBLE | + 4 = +------------------+
+ +------------------+ %esi -> | addr of DUP |
+ | addr of EXIT | +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | etc. |
+
+ Then we do NEXT, and because of the magic of threaded code that increments %esi again
+ and calls DUP.
+
+ Well, it seems to work.
+
+ One minor point here. Because DOCOL is the first bit of assembly actually to be defined
+ in this file (the others were just macros), and because I usually compile this code with the
+ text segment starting at address 0, DOCOL has address 0. So if you are disassembling the
+ code and see a word with a codeword of 0, you will immediately know that the word is
+ written in FORTH (it's not an assembler primitive) and so uses DOCOL as the interpreter.
+
+ STARTING UP ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Now let's get down to nuts and bolts. When we start the program we need to set up
+ a few things like the return stack. But as soon as we can, we want to jump into FORTH
+ code (albeit much of the "early" FORTH code will still need to be written as
+ assembly language primitives).
+
+ This is what the set up code does. Does a tiny bit of house-keeping, sets up the
+ separate return stack (NB: Linux gives us the ordinary parameter stack already), then
+ immediately jumps to a FORTH word called QUIT. Despite its name, QUIT doesn't quit
+ anything. It resets some internal state and starts reading and interpreting commands.
+ (The reason it is called QUIT is because you can call QUIT from your own FORTH code
+ to "quit" your program and go back to interpreting).
+*/
+/* Assembler entry point. */
+ .text
+ .globl _start
+_start:
+ cld
+ mov %esp,var_S0 // Save the initial data stack pointer in FORTH variable S0.
+ mov $return_stack_top,%ebp // Initialise the return stack.
+ call set_up_data_segment
+ mov $cold_start,%esi // Initialise interpreter.
+ NEXT // Run interpreter!
+ .section .rodata
+cold_start: // High-level code without a codeword.
+ .int QUIT
+
+/*
+ BUILT-IN WORDS ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Remember our dictionary entries (headers)? Let's bring those together with the codeword
+ and data words to see how : DOUBLE DUP + ; really looks in memory.
+
+ pointer to previous word
+ ^
+ |
+ +--|------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | DOCOL | DUP | + | EXIT |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+--|---------+------------+------------+
+ ^ len pad codeword |
+ | V
+ LINK in next word points to codeword of DUP
+
+ Initially we can't just write ": DOUBLE DUP + ;" (ie. that literal string) here because we
+ don't yet have anything to read the string, break it up at spaces, parse each word, etc. etc.
+ So instead we will have to define built-in words using the GNU assembler data constructors
+ (like .int, .byte, .string, .ascii and so on -- look them up in the gas info page if you are
+ unsure of them).
+
+ The long way would be:
+
+ .int <link to previous word>
+ .byte 6 // len
+ .ascii "DOUBLE" // string
+ .byte 0 // padding
+DOUBLE: .int DOCOL // codeword
+ .int DUP // pointer to codeword of DUP
+ .int PLUS // pointer to codeword of +
+ .int EXIT // pointer to codeword of EXIT
+
+ That's going to get quite tedious rather quickly, so here I define an assembler macro
+ so that I can just write:
+
+ defword "DOUBLE",6,,DOUBLE
+ .int DUP,PLUS,EXIT
+
+ and I'll get exactly the same effect.
+
+ Don't worry too much about the exact implementation details of this macro - it's complicated!
+*/
-/*----------------------------------------------------------------------
- * Built-in words defined the long way.
- */
-#define F_IMMED 0x80
-#define F_HIDDEN 0x20
+/* Flags - these are discussed later. */
+ .set F_IMMED,0x80
+ .set F_HIDDEN,0x20
+ .set F_LENMASK,0x1f // length mask
// Store the chain of links.
.set link,0
- .macro defcode name, namelen, flags=0, label
+ .macro defword name, namelen, flags=0, label
.section .rodata
.align 4
.globl name_\label
.set link,name_\label
.byte \flags+\namelen // flags + length byte
.ascii "\name" // the name
- .align 4
+ .align 4 // padding to next 4 byte boundary
.globl \label
\label :
- .int code_\label // codeword
- .text
- .align 4
- .globl code_\label
-code_\label : // assembler code follows
+ .int DOCOL // codeword - the interpreter
+ // list of word pointers follow
.endm
- .macro defword name, namelen, flags=0, label
+/*
+ Similarly I want a way to write words written in assembly language. There will quite a few
+ of these to start with because, well, everything has to start in assembly before there's
+ enough "infrastructure" to be able to start writing FORTH words, but also I want to define
+ some common FORTH words in assembly language for speed, even though I could write them in FORTH.
+
+ This is what DUP looks like in memory:
+
+ pointer to previous word
+ ^
+ |
+ +--|------+---+---+---+---+------------+
+ | LINK | 3 | D | U | P | code_DUP ---------------------> points to the assembly
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+------------+ code used to write DUP,
+ ^ len codeword which ends with NEXT.
+ |
+ LINK in next word
+
+ Again, for brevity in writing the header I'm going to write an assembler macro called defcode.
+ As with defword above, don't worry about the complicated details of the macro.
+*/
+
+ .macro defcode name, namelen, flags=0, label
.section .rodata
.align 4
.globl name_\label
.set link,name_\label
.byte \flags+\namelen // flags + length byte
.ascii "\name" // the name
- .align 4
+ .align 4 // padding to next 4 byte boundary
.globl \label
\label :
- .int DOCOL // codeword - the interpreter
- // list of word pointers follow
+ .int code_\label // codeword
+ .text
+ //.align 4
+ .globl code_\label
+code_\label : // assembler code follows
.endm
- .macro defvar name, namelen, flags=0, label, initial=0
- defcode \name,\namelen,\flags,\label
- push $var_\name
- NEXT
- .data
- .align 4
-var_\name :
- .int \initial
- .endm
+/*
+ Now some easy FORTH primitives. These are written in assembly for speed. If you understand
+ i386 assembly language then it is worth reading these. However if you don't understand assembly
+ you can skip the details.
+*/
- // Some easy ones, written in assembly for speed
defcode "DROP",4,,DROP
pop %eax // drop top of stack
NEXT
- defcode "DUP",3,,DUP
- pop %eax // duplicate top of stack
- push %eax
- push %eax
- NEXT
-
defcode "SWAP",4,,SWAP
- pop %eax // swap top of stack
+ pop %eax // swap top two elements on stack
pop %ebx
push %eax
push %ebx
NEXT
+ defcode "DUP",3,,DUP
+ mov (%esp),%eax // duplicate top of stack
+ push %eax
+ NEXT
+
defcode "OVER",4,,OVER
mov 4(%esp),%eax // get the second element of stack
push %eax // and push it on top
pop %eax
pop %ebx
pop %ecx
+ push %ebx
push %eax
push %ecx
- push %ebx
NEXT
defcode "-ROT",4,,NROT
pop %eax
pop %ebx
pop %ecx
+ push %eax
+ push %ecx
+ push %ebx
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "2DROP",5,,TWODROP // drop top two elements of stack
+ pop %eax
+ pop %eax
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "2DUP",4,,TWODUP // duplicate top two elements of stack
+ mov (%esp),%eax
+ mov 4(%esp),%ebx
+ push %ebx
+ push %eax
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "2SWAP",5,,TWOSWAP // swap top two pairs of elements of stack
+ pop %eax
+ pop %ebx
+ pop %ecx
+ pop %edx
push %ebx
push %eax
+ push %edx
push %ecx
NEXT
+ defcode "?DUP",4,,QDUP // duplicate top of stack if non-zero
+ movl (%esp),%eax
+ test %eax,%eax
+ jz 1f
+ push %eax
+1: NEXT
+
defcode "1+",2,,INCR
incl (%esp) // increment top of stack
NEXT
NEXT
defcode "4+",2,,INCR4
- addl $4,(%esp) // increment top of stack
+ addl $4,(%esp) // add 4 to top of stack
NEXT
defcode "4-",2,,DECR4
- subl $4,(%esp) // decrement top of stack
+ subl $4,(%esp) // subtract 4 from top of stack
NEXT
defcode "+",1,,ADD
- pop %eax
- addl %eax,(%esp)
+ pop %eax // get top of stack
+ addl %eax,(%esp) // and add it to next word on stack
NEXT
defcode "-",1,,SUB
- pop %eax
- subl %eax,(%esp)
+ pop %eax // get top of stack
+ subl %eax,(%esp) // and subtract it from next word on stack
NEXT
defcode "*",1,,MUL
push %eax // ignore overflow
NEXT
- defcode "/",1,,DIV
- xor %edx,%edx
- pop %ebx
- pop %eax
- idivl %ebx
- push %eax // push quotient
- NEXT
+/*
+ In this FORTH, only /MOD is primitive. Later we will define the / and MOD words in
+ terms of the primitive /MOD. The design of the i386 assembly instruction idiv which
+ leaves both quotient and remainder makes this the obvious choice.
+*/
- defcode "MOD",3,,MOD
+ defcode "/MOD",4,,DIVMOD
xor %edx,%edx
pop %ebx
pop %eax
idivl %ebx
push %edx // push remainder
+ push %eax // push quotient
NEXT
+/*
+ Lots of comparison operations like =, <, >, etc..
+
+ ANS FORTH says that the comparison words should return all (binary) 1's for
+ TRUE and all 0's for FALSE. However this is a bit of a strange convention
+ so this FORTH breaks it and returns the more normal (for C programmers ...)
+ 1 meaning TRUE and 0 meaning FALSE.
+*/
+
defcode "=",1,,EQU // top two words are equal?
pop %eax
pop %ebx
cmp %ebx,%eax
- je 1f
- pushl $0
- NEXT
-1: pushl $1
+ sete %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
NEXT
defcode "<>",2,,NEQU // top two words are not equal?
pop %eax
pop %ebx
cmp %ebx,%eax
- je 1f
- pushl $1
+ setne %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "<",1,,LT
+ pop %eax
+ pop %ebx
+ cmp %eax,%ebx
+ setl %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode ">",1,,GT
+ pop %eax
+ pop %ebx
+ cmp %eax,%ebx
+ setg %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "<=",2,,LE
+ pop %eax
+ pop %ebx
+ cmp %eax,%ebx
+ setle %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
NEXT
-1: pushl $0
+
+ defcode ">=",2,,GE
+ pop %eax
+ pop %ebx
+ cmp %eax,%ebx
+ setge %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
NEXT
defcode "0=",2,,ZEQU // top of stack equals 0?
pop %eax
test %eax,%eax
- jz 1f
- pushl $0
+ setz %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "0<>",3,,ZNEQU // top of stack not 0?
+ pop %eax
+ test %eax,%eax
+ setnz %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "0<",2,,ZLT // comparisons with 0
+ pop %eax
+ test %eax,%eax
+ setl %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "0>",2,,ZGT
+ pop %eax
+ test %eax,%eax
+ setg %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "0<=",3,,ZLE
+ pop %eax
+ test %eax,%eax
+ setle %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
NEXT
-1: pushl $1
+
+ defcode "0>=",3,,ZGE
+ pop %eax
+ test %eax,%eax
+ setge %al
+ movzbl %al,%eax
+ pushl %eax
NEXT
- defcode "AND",3,,AND
+ defcode "AND",3,,AND // bitwise AND
pop %eax
andl %eax,(%esp)
NEXT
- defcode "OR",2,,OR
+ defcode "OR",2,,OR // bitwise OR
pop %eax
orl %eax,(%esp)
NEXT
- defcode "INVERT",6,,INVERT
+ defcode "XOR",3,,XOR // bitwise XOR
+ pop %eax
+ xorl %eax,(%esp)
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "INVERT",6,,INVERT // this is the FORTH bitwise "NOT" function (cf. NEGATE and NOT)
notl (%esp)
NEXT
- // COLD must not return (ie. must not call EXIT).
- defword "COLD",4,,COLD
- // XXX reinitialisation of the interpreter
- .int INTERPRETER // call the interpreter loop (never returns)
- .int LIT,1,SYSEXIT // hmmm, but in case it does, exit(1).
+/*
+ RETURNING FROM FORTH WORDS ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Time to talk about what happens when we EXIT a function. In this diagram QUADRUPLE has called
+ DOUBLE, and DOUBLE is about to exit (look at where %esi is pointing):
+
+ QUADRUPLE
+ +------------------+
+ | codeword |
+ +------------------+ DOUBLE
+ | addr of DOUBLE ---------------> +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | codeword |
+ | addr of DOUBLE | +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | addr of DUP |
+ | addr of EXIT | +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | addr of + |
+ +------------------+
+ %esi -> | addr of EXIT |
+ +------------------+
+
+ What happens when the + function does NEXT? Well, the following code is executed.
+*/
defcode "EXIT",4,,EXIT
POPRSP %esi // pop return stack into %esi
NEXT
+/*
+ EXIT gets the old %esi which we saved from before on the return stack, and puts it in %esi.
+ So after this (but just before NEXT) we get:
+
+ QUADRUPLE
+ +------------------+
+ | codeword |
+ +------------------+ DOUBLE
+ | addr of DOUBLE ---------------> +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | codeword |
+ %esi -> | addr of DOUBLE | +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | addr of DUP |
+ | addr of EXIT | +------------------+
+ +------------------+ | addr of + |
+ +------------------+
+ | addr of EXIT |
+ +------------------+
+
+ And NEXT just completes the job by, well, in this case just by calling DOUBLE again :-)
+
+ LITERALS ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ The final point I "glossed over" before was how to deal with functions that do anything
+ apart from calling other functions. For example, suppose that DOUBLE was defined like this:
+
+ : DOUBLE 2 * ;
+
+ It does the same thing, but how do we compile it since it contains the literal 2? One way
+ would be to have a function called "2" (which you'd have to write in assembler), but you'd need
+ a function for every single literal that you wanted to use.
+
+ FORTH solves this by compiling the function using a special word called LIT:
+
+ +---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+ | (usual header of DOUBLE) | DOCOL | LIT | 2 | * | EXIT |
+ +---------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+ LIT is executed in the normal way, but what it does next is definitely not normal. It
+ looks at %esi (which now points to the number 2), grabs it, pushes it on the stack, then
+ manipulates %esi in order to skip the number as if it had never been there.
+
+ What's neat is that the whole grab/manipulate can be done using a single byte single
+ i386 instruction, our old friend LODSL. Rather than me drawing more ASCII-art diagrams,
+ see if you can find out how LIT works:
+*/
+
defcode "LIT",3,,LIT
// %esi points to the next command, but in this case it points to the next
// literal 32 bit integer. Get that literal into %eax and increment %esi.
push %eax // push the literal number on to stack
NEXT
- defcode "LITSTRING",9,,LITSTRING
- lodsl // get the length of the string
- push %eax // push it on the stack
- push %esi // push the address of the start of the string
- addl %eax,%esi // skip past the string
- addl $3,%esi // but round up to next 4 byte boundary
- andl $~3,%esi
- NEXT
-
- defcode "BRANCH",6,,BRANCH
- add (%esi),%esi // add the offset to the instruction pointer
- NEXT
+/*
+ MEMORY ----------------------------------------------------------------------
- defcode "0BRANCH",7,,ZBRANCH
- pop %eax
- test %eax,%eax // top of stack is zero?
- jz code_BRANCH // if so, jump back to the branch function above
- lodsl // otherwise we need to skip the offset
- NEXT
+ As important point about FORTH is that it gives you direct access to the lowest levels
+ of the machine. Manipulating memory directly is done frequently in FORTH, and these are
+ the primitive words for doing it.
+*/
defcode "!",1,,STORE
pop %ebx // address to store at
push %eax // push value onto stack
NEXT
- defcode "+!",2,ADDSTORE
+ defcode "+!",2,,ADDSTORE
pop %ebx // address
pop %eax // the amount to add
addl %eax,(%ebx) // add it
NEXT
- defcode "-!",2,SUBSTORE
+ defcode "-!",2,,SUBSTORE
pop %ebx // address
pop %eax // the amount to subtract
subl %eax,(%ebx) // add it
NEXT
-/* ! and @ (STORE and FETCH) store 32-bit words. It's also useful to be able to read and write bytes.
- * I don't know whether FORTH has these words, so I invented my own, called !b and @b.
- * Byte-oriented operations only work on architectures which permit them (i386 is one of those).
- * UPDATE: writing a byte to the dictionary pointer is called C, in FORTH.
+/*
+ ! and @ (STORE and FETCH) store 32-bit words. It's also useful to be able to read and write bytes
+ so we also define standard words C@ and C!.
+
+ Byte-oriented operations only work on architectures which permit them (i386 is one of those).
*/
- defcode "!b",2,,STOREBYTE
+
+ defcode "C!",2,,STOREBYTE
pop %ebx // address to store at
pop %eax // data to store there
movb %al,(%ebx) // store it
NEXT
- defcode "@b",2,,FETCHBYTE
+ defcode "C@",2,,FETCHBYTE
pop %ebx // address to fetch
xor %eax,%eax
movb (%ebx),%al // fetch it
push %eax // push value onto stack
NEXT
- // The STATE variable is 0 for execute mode, != 0 for compile mode
- defvar "STATE",5,,STATE
+/* C@C! is a useful byte copy primitive. */
+ defcode "C@C!",4,,CCOPY
+ movl 4(%esp),%ebx // source address
+ movb (%ebx),%al // get source character
+ pop %edi // destination address
+ stosb // copy to destination
+ push %edi // increment destination address
+ incl 4(%esp) // increment source address
+ NEXT
- // This points to where compiled words go.
- defvar "HERE",4,,HERE,user_defs_start
+/* and CMOVE is a block copy operation. */
+ defcode "CMOVE",5,,CMOVE
+ mov %esi,%edx // preserve %esi
+ pop %ecx // length
+ pop %edi // destination address
+ pop %esi // source address
+ rep movsb // copy source to destination
+ mov %edx,%esi // restore %esi
+ NEXT
- // This is the last definition in the dictionary.
- defvar "LATEST",6,,LATEST,name_SYSEXIT // SYSEXIT must be last in built-in dictionary
+/*
+ BUILT-IN VARIABLES ----------------------------------------------------------------------
- // _X, _Y and _Z are scratch variables used by standard words.
- defvar "_X",2,,TX
- defvar "_Y",2,,TY
- defvar "_Z",2,,TZ
+ These are some built-in variables and related standard FORTH words. Of these, the only one that we
+ have discussed so far was LATEST, which points to the last (most recently defined) word in the
+ FORTH dictionary. LATEST is also a FORTH word which pushes the address of LATEST (the variable)
+ on to the stack, so you can read or write it using @ and ! operators. For example, to print
+ the current value of LATEST (and this can apply to any FORTH variable) you would do:
- // This stores the top of the data stack.
- defvar "S0",2,,SZ
+ LATEST @ . CR
- // This stores the top of the return stack.
- defvar "R0",2,,RZ,return_stack
+ To make defining variables shorter, I'm using a macro called defvar, similar to defword and
+ defcode above. (In fact the defvar macro uses defcode to do the dictionary header).
+*/
- defcode "DSP@",4,,DSPFETCH
- mov %esp,%eax
- push %eax
+ .macro defvar name, namelen, flags=0, label, initial=0
+ defcode \name,\namelen,\flags,\label
+ push $var_\name
NEXT
+ .data
+ .align 4
+var_\name :
+ .int \initial
+ .endm
- defcode "DSP!",4,,DSPSTORE
- pop %esp
- NEXT
+/*
+ The built-in variables are:
- defcode ">R",2,,TOR
- pop %eax // pop parameter stack into %eax
- PUSHRSP %eax // push it on to the return stack
- NEXT
+ STATE Is the interpreter executing code (0) or compiling a word (non-zero)?
+ LATEST Points to the latest (most recently defined) word in the dictionary.
+ HERE Points to the next free byte of memory. When compiling, compiled words go here.
+ S0 Stores the address of the top of the parameter stack.
+ BASE The current base for printing and reading numbers.
+
+*/
+ defvar "STATE",5,,STATE
+ defvar "HERE",4,,HERE
+ defvar "LATEST",6,,LATEST,name_SYSCALL0 // SYSCALL0 must be last in built-in dictionary
+ defvar "S0",2,,SZ
+ defvar "BASE",4,,BASE,10
+
+/*
+ BUILT-IN CONSTANTS ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ It's also useful to expose a few constants to FORTH. When the word is executed it pushes a
+ constant value on the stack.
+
+ The built-in constants are:
+
+ VERSION Is the current version of this FORTH.
+ R0 The address of the top of the return stack.
+ DOCOL Pointer to DOCOL.
+ F_IMMED The IMMEDIATE flag's actual value.
+ F_HIDDEN The HIDDEN flag's actual value.
+ F_LENMASK The length mask in the flags/len byte.
+
+ SYS_* and the numeric codes of various Linux syscalls (from <asm/unistd.h>)
+*/
+
+//#include <asm-i386/unistd.h> // you might need this instead
+#include <asm/unistd.h>
+
+ .macro defconst name, namelen, flags=0, label, value
+ defcode \name,\namelen,\flags,\label
+ push $\value
+ NEXT
+ .endm
+
+ defconst "VERSION",7,,VERSION,JONES_VERSION
+ defconst "R0",2,,RZ,return_stack_top
+ defconst "DOCOL",5,,__DOCOL,DOCOL
+ defconst "F_IMMED",7,,__F_IMMED,F_IMMED
+ defconst "F_HIDDEN",8,,__F_HIDDEN,F_HIDDEN
+ defconst "F_LENMASK",9,,__F_LENMASK,F_LENMASK
+
+ defconst "SYS_EXIT",8,,SYS_EXIT,__NR_exit
+ defconst "SYS_OPEN",8,,SYS_OPEN,__NR_open
+ defconst "SYS_CLOSE",9,,SYS_CLOSE,__NR_close
+ defconst "SYS_READ",8,,SYS_READ,__NR_read
+ defconst "SYS_WRITE",9,,SYS_WRITE,__NR_write
+ defconst "SYS_CREAT",9,,SYS_CREAT,__NR_creat
+ defconst "SYS_BRK",7,,SYS_BRK,__NR_brk
+
+ defconst "O_RDONLY",8,,__O_RDONLY,0
+ defconst "O_WRONLY",8,,__O_WRONLY,1
+ defconst "O_RDWR",6,,__O_RDWR,2
+ defconst "O_CREAT",7,,__O_CREAT,0100
+ defconst "O_EXCL",6,,__O_EXCL,0200
+ defconst "O_TRUNC",7,,__O_TRUNC,01000
+ defconst "O_APPEND",8,,__O_APPEND,02000
+ defconst "O_NONBLOCK",10,,__O_NONBLOCK,04000
+
+/*
+ RETURN STACK ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ These words allow you to access the return stack. Recall that the register %ebp always points to
+ the top of the return stack.
+*/
+
+ defcode ">R",2,,TOR
+ pop %eax // pop parameter stack into %eax
+ PUSHRSP %eax // push it on to the return stack
+ NEXT
defcode "R>",2,,FROMR
POPRSP %eax // pop return stack on to %eax
NEXT
defcode "RDROP",5,,RDROP
- lea 4(%ebp),%ebp // pop return stack and throw away
+ addl $4,%ebp // pop return stack and throw away
+ NEXT
+
+/*
+ PARAMETER (DATA) STACK ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ These functions allow you to manipulate the parameter stack. Recall that Linux sets up the parameter
+ stack for us, and it is accessed through %esp.
+*/
+
+ defcode "DSP@",4,,DSPFETCH
+ mov %esp,%eax
+ push %eax
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "DSP!",4,,DSPSTORE
+ pop %esp
NEXT
+/*
+ INPUT AND OUTPUT ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ These are our first really meaty/complicated FORTH primitives. I have chosen to write them in
+ assembler, but surprisingly in "real" FORTH implementations these are often written in terms
+ of more fundamental FORTH primitives. I chose to avoid that because I think that just obscures
+ the implementation. After all, you may not understand assembler but you can just think of it
+ as an opaque block of code that does what it says.
+
+ Let's discuss input first.
+
+ The FORTH word KEY reads the next byte from stdin (and pushes it on the parameter stack).
+ So if KEY is called and someone hits the space key, then the number 32 (ASCII code of space)
+ is pushed on the stack.
+
+ In FORTH there is no distinction between reading code and reading input. We might be reading
+ and compiling code, we might be reading words to execute, we might be asking for the user
+ to type their name -- ultimately it all comes in through KEY.
+
+ The implementation of KEY uses an input buffer of a certain size (defined at the end of this
+ file). It calls the Linux read(2) system call to fill this buffer and tracks its position
+ in the buffer using a couple of variables, and if it runs out of input buffer then it refills
+ it automatically. The other thing that KEY does is if it detects that stdin has closed, it
+ exits the program, which is why when you hit ^D the FORTH system cleanly exits.
+
+ buffer bufftop
+ | |
+ V V
+ +-------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+ | INPUT READ FROM STDIN ....... | unused part of the buffer |
+ +-------------------------------+--------------------------------------+
+ ^
+ |
+ currkey (next character to read)
+
+ <---------------------- BUFFER_SIZE (4096 bytes) ---------------------->
+*/
+
defcode "KEY",3,,KEY
call _KEY
push %eax // push return value on stack
_KEY:
mov (currkey),%ebx
cmp (bufftop),%ebx
- jge 1f
+ jge 1f // exhausted the input buffer?
xor %eax,%eax
- mov (%ebx),%al
+ mov (%ebx),%al // get next key from input buffer
inc %ebx
- mov %ebx,(currkey)
+ mov %ebx,(currkey) // increment currkey
ret
-1: // out of input; use read(2) to fetch more input from stdin
+1: // Out of input; use read(2) to fetch more input from stdin.
xor %ebx,%ebx // 1st param: stdin
mov $buffer,%ecx // 2nd param: buffer
mov %ecx,currkey
- mov $buffend-buffer,%edx // 3rd param: max length
+ mov $BUFFER_SIZE,%edx // 3rd param: max length
mov $__NR_read,%eax // syscall: read
int $0x80
test %eax,%eax // If %eax <= 0, then exit.
mov %ecx,bufftop
jmp _KEY
-2: // error or out of input: exit
+2: // Error or end of input: exit the program.
xor %ebx,%ebx
mov $__NR_exit,%eax // syscall: exit
int $0x80
+ .data
+ .align 4
+currkey:
+ .int buffer // Current place in input buffer (next character to read).
+bufftop:
+ .int buffer // Last valid data in input buffer + 1.
+
+/*
+ By contrast, output is much simpler. The FORTH word EMIT writes out a single byte to stdout.
+ This implementation just uses the write system call. No attempt is made to buffer output, but
+ it would be a good exercise to add it.
+*/
+
defcode "EMIT",4,,EMIT
pop %eax
call _EMIT
mov $1,%ebx // 1st param: stdout
// write needs the address of the byte to write
- mov %al,(2f)
- mov $2f,%ecx // 2nd param: address
+ mov %al,emit_scratch
+ mov $emit_scratch,%ecx // 2nd param: address
mov $1,%edx // 3rd param: nbytes = 1
int $0x80
ret
- .bss
-2: .space 1 // scratch used by EMIT
+ .data // NB: easier to fit in the .data section
+emit_scratch:
+ .space 1 // scratch used by EMIT
+
+/*
+ Back to input, WORD is a FORTH word which reads the next full word of input.
+
+ What it does in detail is that it first skips any blanks (spaces, tabs, newlines and so on).
+ Then it calls KEY to read characters into an internal buffer until it hits a blank. Then it
+ calculates the length of the word it read and returns the address and the length as
+ two words on the stack (with the length at the top of stack).
+
+ Notice that WORD has a single internal buffer which it overwrites each time (rather like
+ a static C string). Also notice that WORD's internal buffer is just 32 bytes long and
+ there is NO checking for overflow. 31 bytes happens to be the maximum length of a
+ FORTH word that we support, and that is what WORD is used for: to read FORTH words when
+ we are compiling and executing code. The returned strings are not NUL-terminated.
+
+ Start address+length is the normal way to represent strings in FORTH (not ending in an
+ ASCII NUL character as in C), and so FORTH strings can contain any character including NULs
+ and can be any length.
+
+ WORD is not suitable for just reading strings (eg. user input) because of all the above
+ peculiarities and limitations.
+
+ Note that when executing, you'll see:
+ WORD FOO
+ which puts "FOO" and length 3 on the stack, but when compiling:
+ : BAR WORD FOO ;
+ is an error (or at least it doesn't do what you might expect). Later we'll talk about compiling
+ and immediate mode, and you'll understand why.
+*/
defcode "WORD",4,,WORD
call _WORD
- push %ecx // push length
push %edi // push base address
+ push %ecx // push length
NEXT
_WORD:
jbe 1b // if so, keep looking
/* Search for the end of the word, storing chars as we go. */
- mov $5f,%edi // pointer to return buffer
+ mov $word_buffer,%edi // pointer to return buffer
2:
stosb // add character to return buffer
call _KEY // get next key, returned in %al
ja 2b // if not, keep looping
/* Return the word (well, the static buffer) and length. */
- sub $5f,%edi
+ sub $word_buffer,%edi
mov %edi,%ecx // return length of the word
- mov $5f,%edi // return address of the word
+ mov $word_buffer,%edi // return address of the word
ret
/* Code to skip \ comments to end of the current line. */
jne 3b
jmp 1b
- .bss
+ .data // NB: easier to fit in the .data section
// A static buffer where WORD returns. Subsequent calls
// overwrite this buffer. Maximum word length is 32 chars.
-5: .space 32
+word_buffer:
+ .space 32
- defcode "EMITSTRING",10,,EMITSTRING
- mov $1,%ebx // 1st param: stdout
- pop %ecx // 2nd param: address of string
- pop %edx // 3rd param: length of string
+/*
+ As well as reading in words we'll need to read in numbers and for that we are using a function
+ called NUMBER. This parses a numeric string such as one returned by WORD and pushes the
+ number on the parameter stack.
- mov $__NR_write,%eax // write syscall
- int $0x80
+ The function uses the variable BASE as the base (radix) for conversion, so for example if
+ BASE is 2 then we expect a binary number. Normally BASE is 10.
- NEXT
+ If the word starts with a '-' character then the returned value is negative.
- defcode ".",1,,DOT
- pop %eax // Get the number to print into %eax
- call _DOT // Easier to do this recursively ...
+ If the string can't be parsed as a number (or contains characters outside the current BASE)
+ then we need to return an error indication. So NUMBER actually returns two items on the stack.
+ At the top of stack we return the number of unconverted characters (ie. if 0 then all characters
+ were converted, so there is no error). Second from top of stack is the parsed number or a
+ partial value if there was an error.
+*/
+ defcode "NUMBER",6,,NUMBER
+ pop %ecx // length of string
+ pop %edi // start address of string
+ call _NUMBER
+ push %eax // parsed number
+ push %ecx // number of unparsed characters (0 = no error)
NEXT
-_DOT:
- mov $10,%ecx // Base 10
-1:
- cmp %ecx,%eax
- jb 2f
- xor %edx,%edx // %edx:%eax / %ecx -> quotient %eax, remainder %edx
- idivl %ecx
- pushl %edx
- call _DOT
- popl %eax
- jmp 1b
-2:
- xor %ah,%ah
- aam $10
- cwde
- addl $'0',%eax
- call _EMIT
- ret
- // Parse a number from a string on the stack -- almost the opposite of . (DOT)
- // Note that there is absolutely no error checking. In particular the length of the
- // string must be >= 1 bytes.
- defcode "SNUMBER",7,,SNUMBER
- pop %edi
- pop %ecx
- call _SNUMBER
- push %eax
- NEXT
-_SNUMBER:
+_NUMBER:
xor %eax,%eax
xor %ebx,%ebx
-1:
- imull $10,%eax // %eax *= 10
- movb (%edi),%bl
+
+ test %ecx,%ecx // trying to parse a zero-length string is an error, but will return 0.
+ jz 5f
+
+ movl var_BASE,%edx // get BASE (in %dl)
+
+ // Check if first character is '-'.
+ movb (%edi),%bl // %bl = first character in string
+ inc %edi
+ push %eax // push 0 on stack
+ cmpb $'-',%bl // negative number?
+ jnz 2f
+ pop %eax
+ push %ebx // push <> 0 on stack, indicating negative
+ dec %ecx
+ jnz 1f
+ pop %ebx // error: string is only '-'.
+ movl $1,%ecx
+ ret
+
+ // Loop reading digits.
+1: imull %edx,%eax // %eax *= BASE
+ movb (%edi),%bl // %bl = next character in string
inc %edi
- subb $'0',%bl // ASCII -> digit
+
+ // Convert 0-9, A-Z to a number 0-35.
+2: subb $'0',%bl // < '0'?
+ jb 4f
+ cmp $10,%bl // <= '9'?
+ jb 3f
+ subb $17,%bl // < 'A'? (17 is 'A'-'0')
+ jb 4f
+ addb $10,%bl
+
+3: cmp %dl,%bl // >= BASE?
+ jge 4f
+
+ // OK, so add it to %eax and loop.
add %ebx,%eax
dec %ecx
jnz 1b
- ret
+
+ // Negate the result if first character was '-' (saved on the stack).
+4: pop %ebx
+ test %ebx,%ebx
+ jz 5f
+ neg %eax
+
+5: ret
+
+/*
+ DICTIONARY LOOK UPS ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ We're building up to our prelude on how FORTH code is compiled, but first we need yet more infrastructure.
+
+ The FORTH word FIND takes a string (a word as parsed by WORD -- see above) and looks it up in the
+ dictionary. What it actually returns is the address of the dictionary header, if it finds it,
+ or 0 if it didn't.
+
+ So if DOUBLE is defined in the dictionary, then WORD DOUBLE FIND returns the following pointer:
+
+ pointer to this
+ |
+ |
+ V
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | DOCOL | DUP | + | EXIT |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+
+
+ See also >CFA and >DFA.
+
+ FIND doesn't find dictionary entries which are flagged as HIDDEN. See below for why.
+*/
defcode "FIND",4,,FIND
- pop %edi // %edi = address
pop %ecx // %ecx = length
+ pop %edi // %edi = address
call _FIND
- push %eax
+ push %eax // %eax = address of dictionary entry (or NULL)
NEXT
_FIND:
// Now we start searching backwards through the dictionary for this word.
mov var_LATEST,%edx // LATEST points to name header of the latest word in the dictionary
-1:
- test %edx,%edx // NULL pointer? (end of the linked list)
+1: test %edx,%edx // NULL pointer? (end of the linked list)
je 4f
// Compare the length expected and the length of the word.
// this won't pick the word (the length will appear to be wrong).
xor %eax,%eax
movb 4(%edx),%al // %al = flags+length field
- andb $(F_HIDDEN|0x1f),%al // %al = name length
+ andb $(F_HIDDEN|F_LENMASK),%al // %al = name length
cmpb %cl,%al // Length is the same?
jne 2f
mov %edx,%eax
ret
-2:
- mov (%edx),%edx // Move back through the link field to the previous word
+2: mov (%edx),%edx // Move back through the link field to the previous word
jmp 1b // .. and loop.
4: // Not found.
xor %eax,%eax // Return zero to indicate not found.
ret
- defcode ">CFA",4,,TCFA // DEA -> Codeword address
+/*
+ FIND returns the dictionary pointer, but when compiling we need the codeword pointer (recall
+ that FORTH definitions are compiled into lists of codeword pointers). The standard FORTH
+ word >CFA turns a dictionary pointer into a codeword pointer.
+
+ The example below shows the result of:
+
+ WORD DOUBLE FIND >CFA
+
+ FIND returns a pointer to this
+ | >CFA converts it to a pointer to this
+ | |
+ V V
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | DOCOL | DUP | + | EXIT |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+
+ codeword
+
+ Notes:
+
+ Because names vary in length, this isn't just a simple increment.
+
+ In this FORTH you cannot easily turn a codeword pointer back into a dictionary entry pointer, but
+ that is not true in most FORTH implementations where they store a back pointer in the definition
+ (with an obvious memory/complexity cost). The reason they do this is that it is useful to be
+ able to go backwards (codeword -> dictionary entry) in order to decompile FORTH definitions
+ quickly.
+
+ What does CFA stand for? My best guess is "Code Field Address".
+*/
+
+ defcode ">CFA",4,,TCFA
pop %edi
call _TCFA
push %edi
add $4,%edi // Skip link pointer.
movb (%edi),%al // Load flags+len into %al.
inc %edi // Skip flags+len byte.
- andb $0x1f,%al // Just the length, not the flags.
+ andb $F_LENMASK,%al // Just the length, not the flags.
add %eax,%edi // Skip the name.
addl $3,%edi // The codeword is 4-byte aligned.
andl $~3,%edi
ret
- defcode "CHAR",4,,CHAR
- call _WORD // Returns %ecx = length, %edi = pointer to word.
- xor %eax,%eax
- movb (%edi),%al // Get the first character of the word.
- push %eax // Push it onto the stack.
- NEXT
+/*
+ Related to >CFA is >DFA which takes a dictionary entry address as returned by FIND and
+ returns a pointer to the first data field.
+
+ FIND returns a pointer to this
+ | >CFA converts it to a pointer to this
+ | |
+ | | >DFA converts it to a pointer to this
+ | | |
+ V V V
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | DOCOL | DUP | + | EXIT |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+
+ codeword
+
+ (Note to those following the source of FIG-FORTH / ciforth: My >DFA definition is
+ different from theirs, because they have an extra indirection).
+
+ You can see that >DFA is easily defined in FORTH just by adding 4 to the result of >CFA.
+*/
- defcode ":",1,,COLON
+ defword ">DFA",4,,TDFA
+ .int TCFA // >CFA (get code field address)
+ .int INCR4 // 4+ (add 4 to it to get to next word)
+ .int EXIT // EXIT (return from FORTH word)
- // Get the word and create a dictionary entry header for it.
- call _WORD // Returns %ecx = length, %edi = pointer to word.
- mov %edi,%ebx // %ebx = address of the word
+/*
+ COMPILING ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Now we'll talk about how FORTH compiles words. Recall that a word definition looks like this:
+
+ : DOUBLE DUP + ;
+
+ and we have to turn this into:
+
+ pointer to previous word
+ ^
+ |
+ +--|------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | DOCOL | DUP | + | EXIT |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+--|---------+------------+------------+
+ ^ len pad codeword |
+ | V
+ LATEST points here points to codeword of DUP
+
+ There are several problems to solve. Where to put the new word? How do we read words? How
+ do we define the words : (COLON) and ; (SEMICOLON)?
+
+ FORTH solves this rather elegantly and as you might expect in a very low-level way which
+ allows you to change how the compiler works on your own code.
+
+ FORTH has an INTERPRET function (a true interpreter this time, not DOCOL) which runs in a
+ loop, reading words (using WORD), looking them up (using FIND), turning them into codeword
+ pointers (using >CFA) and deciding what to do with them.
+
+ What it does depends on the mode of the interpreter (in variable STATE).
+
+ When STATE is zero, the interpreter just runs each word as it looks them up. This is known as
+ immediate mode.
+
+ The interesting stuff happens when STATE is non-zero -- compiling mode. In this mode the
+ interpreter appends the codeword pointer to user memory (the HERE variable points to the next
+ free byte of user memory -- see DATA SEGMENT section below).
+
+ So you may be able to see how we could define : (COLON). The general plan is:
+
+ (1) Use WORD to read the name of the function being defined.
+
+ (2) Construct the dictionary entry -- just the header part -- in user memory:
+ pointer to previous word (from LATEST) +-- Afterwards, HERE points here, where
+ ^ | the interpreter will start appending
+ | V codewords.
+ +--|------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | DOCOL |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+
+ len pad codeword
+
+ (3) Set LATEST to point to the newly defined word, ...
+
+ (4) .. and most importantly leave HERE pointing just after the new codeword. This is where
+ the interpreter will append codewords.
+
+ (5) Set STATE to 1. This goes into compile mode so the interpreter starts appending codewords to
+ our partially-formed header.
+
+ After : has run, our input is here:
+
+ : DOUBLE DUP + ;
+ ^
+ |
+ Next byte returned by KEY will be the 'D' character of DUP
+
+ so the interpreter (now it's in compile mode, so I guess it's really the compiler) reads "DUP",
+ looks it up in the dictionary, gets its codeword pointer, and appends it:
+
+ +-- HERE updated to point here.
+ |
+ V
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | DOCOL | DUP |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+
+ len pad codeword
+
+ Next we read +, get the codeword pointer, and append it:
+
+ +-- HERE updated to point here.
+ |
+ V
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | DOCOL | DUP | + |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+
+ len pad codeword
+
+ The issue is what happens next. Obviously what we _don't_ want to happen is that we
+ read ";" and compile it and go on compiling everything afterwards.
+
+ At this point, FORTH uses a trick. Remember the length byte in the dictionary definition
+ isn't just a plain length byte, but can also contain flags. One flag is called the
+ IMMEDIATE flag (F_IMMED in this code). If a word in the dictionary is flagged as
+ IMMEDIATE then the interpreter runs it immediately _even if it's in compile mode_.
+
+ This is how the word ; (SEMICOLON) works -- as a word flagged in the dictionary as IMMEDIATE.
+
+ And all it does is append the codeword for EXIT on to the current definition and switch
+ back to immediate mode (set STATE back to 0). Shortly we'll see the actual definition
+ of ; and we'll see that it's really a very simple definition, declared IMMEDIATE.
+
+ After the interpreter reads ; and executes it 'immediately', we get this:
+
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | DOCOL | DUP | + | EXIT |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+------------+------------+
+ len pad codeword ^
+ |
+ HERE
+ STATE is set to 0.
+
+ And that's it, job done, our new definition is compiled, and we're back in immediate mode
+ just reading and executing words, perhaps including a call to test our new word DOUBLE.
+
+ The only last wrinkle in this is that while our word was being compiled, it was in a
+ half-finished state. We certainly wouldn't want DOUBLE to be called somehow during
+ this time. There are several ways to stop this from happening, but in FORTH what we
+ do is flag the word with the HIDDEN flag (F_HIDDEN in this code) just while it is
+ being compiled. This prevents FIND from finding it, and thus in theory stops any
+ chance of it being called.
+
+ The above explains how compiling, : (COLON) and ; (SEMICOLON) works and in a moment I'm
+ going to define them. The : (COLON) function can be made a little bit more general by writing
+ it in two parts. The first part, called CREATE, makes just the header:
+
+ +-- Afterwards, HERE points here.
+ |
+ V
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
+ len pad
+
+ and the second part, the actual definition of : (COLON), calls CREATE and appends the
+ DOCOL codeword, so leaving:
+
+ +-- Afterwards, HERE points here.
+ |
+ V
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | DOCOL |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+------------+
+ len pad codeword
+
+ CREATE is a standard FORTH word and the advantage of this split is that we can reuse it to
+ create other types of words (not just ones which contain code, but words which contain variables,
+ constants and other data).
+*/
+
+ defcode "CREATE",6,,CREATE
+
+ // Get the name length and address.
+ pop %ecx // %ecx = length
+ pop %ebx // %ebx = address of name
+
+ // Link pointer.
movl var_HERE,%edi // %edi is the address of the header
movl var_LATEST,%eax // Get link pointer
stosl // and store it in the header.
+ // Length byte and the word itself.
mov %cl,%al // Get the length.
- orb $F_HIDDEN,%al // Set the HIDDEN flag on this entry.
stosb // Store the length/flags byte.
push %esi
mov %ebx,%esi // %esi = word
addl $3,%edi // Align to next 4 byte boundary.
andl $~3,%edi
- movl $DOCOL,%eax // The codeword for user-created words is always DOCOL (the interpreter)
- stosl
-
- // Header built, so now update LATEST and HERE.
- // We'll be compiling words and putting them HERE.
+ // Update LATEST and HERE.
movl var_HERE,%eax
movl %eax,var_LATEST
movl %edi,var_HERE
-
- // And go into compile mode by setting STATE to 1.
- movl $1,var_STATE
NEXT
+/*
+ Because I want to define : (COLON) in FORTH, not assembler, we need a few more FORTH words
+ to use.
+
+ The first is , (COMMA) which is a standard FORTH word which appends a 32 bit integer to the user
+ memory pointed to by HERE, and adds 4 to HERE. So the action of , (COMMA) is:
+
+ previous value of HERE
+ |
+ V
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-- - - - - --+------------+
+ | LINK | 6 | D | O | U | B | L | E | 0 | | <data> |
+ +---------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+-- - - - - --+------------+
+ len pad ^
+ |
+ new value of HERE
+
+ and <data> is whatever 32 bit integer was at the top of the stack.
+
+ , (COMMA) is quite a fundamental operation when compiling. It is used to append codewords
+ to the current word that is being compiled.
+*/
+
defcode ",",1,,COMMA
pop %eax // Code pointer to store.
call _COMMA
movl %edi,var_HERE // Update HERE (incremented)
ret
- defcode "HIDDEN",6,,HIDDEN
- call _HIDDEN
+/*
+ Our definitions of : (COLON) and ; (SEMICOLON) will need to switch to and from compile mode.
+
+ Immediate mode vs. compile mode is stored in the global variable STATE, and by updating this
+ variable we can switch between the two modes.
+
+ For various reasons which may become apparent later, FORTH defines two standard words called
+ [ and ] (LBRAC and RBRAC) which switch between modes:
+
+ Word Assembler Action Effect
+ [ LBRAC STATE := 0 Switch to immediate mode.
+ ] RBRAC STATE := 1 Switch to compile mode.
+
+ [ (LBRAC) is an IMMEDIATE word. The reason is as follows: If we are in compile mode and the
+ interpreter saw [ then it would compile it rather than running it. We would never be able to
+ switch back to immediate mode! So we flag the word as IMMEDIATE so that even in compile mode
+ the word runs immediately, switching us back to immediate mode.
+*/
+
+ defcode "[",1,F_IMMED,LBRAC
+ xor %eax,%eax
+ movl %eax,var_STATE // Set STATE to 0.
NEXT
-_HIDDEN:
- movl var_LATEST,%edi // LATEST word.
- addl $4,%edi // Point to name/flags byte.
- xorb $F_HIDDEN,(%edi) // Toggle the HIDDEN bit.
- ret
- defcode "IMMEDIATE",9,F_IMMED,IMMEDIATE
- call _IMMEDIATE
+ defcode "]",1,,RBRAC
+ movl $1,var_STATE // Set STATE to 1.
NEXT
-_IMMEDIATE:
+
+/*
+ Now we can define : (COLON) using CREATE. It just calls CREATE, appends DOCOL (the codeword), sets
+ the word HIDDEN and goes into compile mode.
+*/
+
+ defword ":",1,,COLON
+ .int WORD // Get the name of the new word
+ .int CREATE // CREATE the dictionary entry / header
+ .int LIT, DOCOL, COMMA // Append DOCOL (the codeword).
+ .int LATEST, FETCH, HIDDEN // Make the word hidden (see below for definition).
+ .int RBRAC // Go into compile mode.
+ .int EXIT // Return from the function.
+
+/*
+ ; (SEMICOLON) is also elegantly simple. Notice the F_IMMED flag.
+*/
+
+ defword ";",1,F_IMMED,SEMICOLON
+ .int LIT, EXIT, COMMA // Append EXIT (so the word will return).
+ .int LATEST, FETCH, HIDDEN // Toggle hidden flag -- unhide the word (see below for definition).
+ .int LBRAC // Go back to IMMEDIATE mode.
+ .int EXIT // Return from the function.
+
+/*
+ EXTENDING THE COMPILER ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Words flagged with IMMEDIATE (F_IMMED) aren't just for the FORTH compiler to use. You can define
+ your own IMMEDIATE words too, and this is a crucial aspect when extending basic FORTH, because
+ it allows you in effect to extend the compiler itself. Does gcc let you do that?
+
+ Standard FORTH words like IF, WHILE, ." and so on are all written as extensions to the basic
+ compiler, and are all IMMEDIATE words.
+
+ The IMMEDIATE word toggles the F_IMMED (IMMEDIATE flag) on the most recently defined word,
+ or on the current word if you call it in the middle of a definition.
+
+ Typical usage is:
+
+ : MYIMMEDWORD IMMEDIATE
+ ...definition...
+ ;
+
+ but some FORTH programmers write this instead:
+
+ : MYIMMEDWORD
+ ...definition...
+ ; IMMEDIATE
+
+ The two usages are equivalent, to a first approximation.
+*/
+
+ defcode "IMMEDIATE",9,F_IMMED,IMMEDIATE
movl var_LATEST,%edi // LATEST word.
addl $4,%edi // Point to name/flags byte.
xorb $F_IMMED,(%edi) // Toggle the IMMED bit.
- ret
+ NEXT
- defcode ";",1,F_IMMED,SEMICOLON
- movl $EXIT,%eax // EXIT is the final codeword in compiled words.
- call _COMMA // Store it.
- call _HIDDEN // Toggle the HIDDEN flag (unhides the new word).
- xor %eax,%eax // Set STATE to 0 (back to execute mode).
- movl %eax,var_STATE
+/*
+ 'addr HIDDEN' toggles the hidden flag (F_HIDDEN) of the word defined at addr. To hide the
+ most recently defined word (used above in : and ; definitions) you would do:
+
+ LATEST @ HIDDEN
+
+ 'HIDE word' toggles the flag on a named 'word'.
+
+ Setting this flag stops the word from being found by FIND, and so can be used to make 'private'
+ words. For example, to break up a large word into smaller parts you might do:
+
+ : SUB1 ... subword ... ;
+ : SUB2 ... subword ... ;
+ : SUB3 ... subword ... ;
+ : MAIN ... defined in terms of SUB1, SUB2, SUB3 ... ;
+ HIDE SUB1
+ HIDE SUB2
+ HIDE SUB3
+
+ After this, only MAIN is 'exported' or seen by the rest of the program.
+*/
+
+ defcode "HIDDEN",6,,HIDDEN
+ pop %edi // Dictionary entry.
+ addl $4,%edi // Point to name/flags byte.
+ xorb $F_HIDDEN,(%edi) // Toggle the HIDDEN bit.
NEXT
-/* This definiton of ' (TICK) is strictly cheating - it also only works in compiled code. */
+ defword "HIDE",4,,HIDE
+ .int WORD // Get the word (after HIDE).
+ .int FIND // Look up in the dictionary.
+ .int HIDDEN // Set F_HIDDEN flag.
+ .int EXIT // Return.
+
+/*
+ ' (TICK) is a standard FORTH word which returns the codeword pointer of the next word.
+
+ The common usage is:
+
+ ' FOO ,
+
+ which appends the codeword of FOO to the current word we are defining (this only works in compiled code).
+
+ You tend to use ' in IMMEDIATE words. For example an alternate (and rather useless) way to define
+ a literal 2 might be:
+
+ : LIT2 IMMEDIATE
+ ' LIT , \ Appends LIT to the currently-being-defined word
+ 2 , \ Appends the number 2 to the currently-being-defined word
+ ;
+
+ So you could do:
+
+ : DOUBLE LIT2 * ;
+
+ (If you don't understand how LIT2 works, then you should review the material about compiling words
+ and immediate mode).
+
+ This definition of ' uses a cheat which I copied from buzzard92. As a result it only works in
+ compiled code. It is possible to write a version of ' based on WORD, FIND, >CFA which works in
+ immediate mode too.
+*/
defcode "'",1,,TICK
lodsl // Get the address of the next word and skip it.
pushl %eax // Push it on the stack.
NEXT
-/* This interpreter is pretty simple, but remember that in FORTH you can always override
- * it later with a more powerful one!
- */
- defword "INTERPRETER",11,,INTERPRETER
- .int INTERPRET,RDROP,INTERPRETER
+/*
+ BRANCHING ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ It turns out that all you need in order to define looping constructs, IF-statements, etc.
+ are two primitives.
+
+ BRANCH is an unconditional branch. 0BRANCH is a conditional branch (it only branches if the
+ top of stack is zero).
+
+ The diagram below shows how BRANCH works in some imaginary compiled word. When BRANCH executes,
+ %esi starts by pointing to the offset field (compare to LIT above):
+
+ +---------------------+-------+---- - - ---+------------+------------+---- - - - ----+------------+
+ | (Dictionary header) | DOCOL | | BRANCH | offset | (skipped) | word |
+ +---------------------+-------+---- - - ---+------------+-----|------+---- - - - ----+------------+
+ ^ | ^
+ | | |
+ | +-----------------------+
+ %esi added to offset
+
+ The offset is added to %esi to make the new %esi, and the result is that when NEXT runs, execution
+ continues at the branch target. Negative offsets work as expected.
+
+ 0BRANCH is the same except the branch happens conditionally.
+
+ Now standard FORTH words such as IF, THEN, ELSE, WHILE, REPEAT, etc. can be implemented entirely
+ in FORTH. They are IMMEDIATE words which append various combinations of BRANCH or 0BRANCH
+ into the word currently being compiled.
+
+ As an example, code written like this:
+
+ condition-code IF true-part THEN rest-code
+
+ compiles to:
+
+ condition-code 0BRANCH OFFSET true-part rest-code
+ | ^
+ | |
+ +-------------+
+*/
+
+ defcode "BRANCH",6,,BRANCH
+ add (%esi),%esi // add the offset to the instruction pointer
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "0BRANCH",7,,ZBRANCH
+ pop %eax
+ test %eax,%eax // top of stack is zero?
+ jz code_BRANCH // if so, jump back to the branch function above
+ lodsl // otherwise we need to skip the offset
+ NEXT
+
+/*
+ LITERAL STRINGS ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ LITSTRING is a primitive used to implement the ." and S" operators (which are written in
+ FORTH). See the definition of those operators later.
+
+ TELL just prints a string. It's more efficient to define this in assembly because we
+ can make it a single Linux syscall.
+*/
+ defcode "LITSTRING",9,,LITSTRING
+ lodsl // get the length of the string
+ push %esi // push the address of the start of the string
+ push %eax // push it on the stack
+ addl %eax,%esi // skip past the string
+ addl $3,%esi // but round up to next 4 byte boundary
+ andl $~3,%esi
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "TELL",4,,TELL
+ mov $1,%ebx // 1st param: stdout
+ pop %edx // 3rd param: length of string
+ pop %ecx // 2nd param: address of string
+ mov $__NR_write,%eax // write syscall
+ int $0x80
+ NEXT
+
+/*
+ QUIT AND INTERPRET ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ QUIT is the first FORTH function called, almost immediately after the FORTH system "boots".
+ As explained before, QUIT doesn't "quit" anything. It does some initialisation (in particular
+ it clears the return stack) and it calls INTERPRET in a loop to interpret commands. The
+ reason it is called QUIT is because you can call it from your own FORTH words in order to
+ "quit" your program and start again at the user prompt.
+
+ INTERPRET is the FORTH interpreter ("toploop", "toplevel" or "REPL" might be a more accurate
+ description -- see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REPL).
+*/
+
+ // QUIT must not return (ie. must not call EXIT).
+ defword "QUIT",4,,QUIT
+ .int RZ,RSPSTORE // R0 RSP!, clear the return stack
+ .int INTERPRET // interpret the next word
+ .int BRANCH,-8 // and loop (indefinitely)
+
+/*
+ This interpreter is pretty simple, but remember that in FORTH you can always override
+ it later with a more powerful one!
+ */
defcode "INTERPRET",9,,INTERPRET
call _WORD // Returns %ecx = length, %edi = pointer to word.
1: // Not in the dictionary (not a word) so assume it's a literal number.
incl interpret_is_lit
- call _SNUMBER // Returns the parsed number in %eax
+ call _NUMBER // Returns the parsed number in %eax, %ecx > 0 if error
+ test %ecx,%ecx
+ jnz 6f
mov %eax,%ebx
mov $LIT,%eax // The word is LIT
jnz 5f
// Not a literal, execute it now. This never returns, but the codeword will
- // eventually call NEXT which will reenter the loop in INTERPRETER.
+ // eventually call NEXT which will reenter the loop in QUIT.
jmp *(%eax)
5: // Executing a literal, which means push it on the stack.
push %ebx
NEXT
- .data
+6: // Parse error (not a known word or a number in the current BASE).
+ // Print an error message followed by up to 40 characters of context.
+ mov $2,%ebx // 1st param: stderr
+ mov $errmsg,%ecx // 2nd param: error message
+ mov $errmsgend-errmsg,%edx // 3rd param: length of string
+ mov $__NR_write,%eax // write syscall
+ int $0x80
+
+ mov (currkey),%ecx // the error occurred just before currkey position
+ mov %ecx,%edx
+ sub $buffer,%edx // %edx = currkey - buffer (length in buffer before currkey)
+ cmp $40,%edx // if > 40, then print only 40 characters
+ jle 7f
+ mov $40,%edx
+7: sub %edx,%ecx // %ecx = start of area to print, %edx = length
+ mov $__NR_write,%eax // write syscall
+ int $0x80
+
+ mov $errmsgnl,%ecx // newline
+ mov $1,%edx
+ mov $__NR_write,%eax // write syscall
+ int $0x80
+
+ NEXT
+
+ .section .rodata
+errmsg: .ascii "PARSE ERROR: "
+errmsgend:
+errmsgnl: .ascii "\n"
+
+ .data // NB: easier to fit in the .data section
.align 4
interpret_is_lit:
.int 0 // Flag used to record if reading a literal
- // NB: SYSEXIT must be the last entry in the built-in dictionary.
- defcode SYSEXIT,7,,SYSEXIT
- pop %ebx
- mov $__NR_exit,%eax
+/*
+ ODDS AND ENDS ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ CHAR puts the ASCII code of the first character of the following word on the stack. For example
+ CHAR A puts 65 on the stack.
+
+ EXECUTE is used to run execution tokens. See the discussion of execution tokens in the
+ FORTH code for more details.
+
+ SYSCALL0, SYSCALL1, SYSCALL2, SYSCALL3 make a standard Linux system call. (See <asm/unistd.h>
+ for a list of system call numbers). As their name suggests these forms take between 0 and 3
+ syscall parameters, plus the system call number.
+
+ In this FORTH, SYSCALL0 must be the last word in the built-in (assembler) dictionary because we
+ initialise the LATEST variable to point to it. This means that if you want to extend the assembler
+ part, you must put new words before SYSCALL0, or else change how LATEST is initialised.
+*/
+
+ defcode "CHAR",4,,CHAR
+ call _WORD // Returns %ecx = length, %edi = pointer to word.
+ xor %eax,%eax
+ movb (%edi),%al // Get the first character of the word.
+ push %eax // Push it onto the stack.
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "EXECUTE",7,,EXECUTE
+ pop %eax // Get xt into %eax
+ jmp *(%eax) // and jump to it.
+ // After xt runs its NEXT will continue executing the current word.
+
+ defcode "SYSCALL3",8,,SYSCALL3
+ pop %eax // System call number (see <asm/unistd.h>)
+ pop %ebx // First parameter.
+ pop %ecx // Second parameter
+ pop %edx // Third parameter
int $0x80
+ push %eax // Result (negative for -errno)
+ NEXT
-/*----------------------------------------------------------------------
- * Input buffer & initial input.
- */
- .data
+ defcode "SYSCALL2",8,,SYSCALL2
+ pop %eax // System call number (see <asm/unistd.h>)
+ pop %ebx // First parameter.
+ pop %ecx // Second parameter
+ int $0x80
+ push %eax // Result (negative for -errno)
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "SYSCALL1",8,,SYSCALL1
+ pop %eax // System call number (see <asm/unistd.h>)
+ pop %ebx // First parameter.
+ int $0x80
+ push %eax // Result (negative for -errno)
+ NEXT
+
+ defcode "SYSCALL0",8,,SYSCALL0
+ pop %eax // System call number (see <asm/unistd.h>)
+ int $0x80
+ push %eax // Result (negative for -errno)
+ NEXT
+
+/*
+ DATA SEGMENT ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+ Here we set up the Linux data segment, used for user definitions and variously known as just
+ the 'data segment', 'user memory' or 'user definitions area'. It is an area of memory which
+ grows upwards and stores both newly-defined FORTH words and global variables of various
+ sorts.
+
+ It is completely analogous to the C heap, except there is no generalised 'malloc' and 'free'
+ (but as with everything in FORTH, writing such functions would just be a Simple Matter
+ Of Programming). Instead in normal use the data segment just grows upwards as new FORTH
+ words are defined/appended to it.
+
+ There are various "features" of the GNU toolchain which make setting up the data segment
+ more complicated than it really needs to be. One is the GNU linker which inserts a random
+ "build ID" segment. Another is Address Space Randomization which means we can't tell
+ where the kernel will choose to place the data segment (or the stack for that matter).
+
+ Therefore writing this set_up_data_segment assembler routine is a little more complicated
+ than it really needs to be. We ask the Linux kernel where it thinks the data segment starts
+ using the brk(2) system call, then ask it to reserve some initial space (also using brk(2)).
+
+ You don't need to worry about this code.
+*/
+ .text
+ .set INITIAL_DATA_SEGMENT_SIZE,65536
+set_up_data_segment:
+ xor %ebx,%ebx // Call brk(0)
+ movl $__NR_brk,%eax
+ int $0x80
+ movl %eax,var_HERE // Initialise HERE to point at beginning of data segment.
+ addl $INITIAL_DATA_SEGMENT_SIZE,%eax // Reserve nn bytes of memory for initial data segment.
+ movl %eax,%ebx // Call brk(HERE+INITIAL_DATA_SEGMENT_SIZE)
+ movl $__NR_brk,%eax
+ int $0x80
+ ret
+
+/*
+ We allocate static buffers for the return static and input buffer (used when
+ reading in files and text that the user types in).
+*/
+ .set RETURN_STACK_SIZE,8192
+ .set BUFFER_SIZE,4096
+
+ .bss
+/* FORTH return stack. */
+ .align 4096
+return_stack:
+ .space RETURN_STACK_SIZE
+return_stack_top: // Initial top of return stack.
+
+/* This is used as a temporary input buffer when reading from files or the terminal. */
.align 4096
buffer:
- // XXX gives 'Warning: unterminated string; newline inserted' messages which you can ignore
- .ascii "\
-\\ Define some character constants
-: '\\n' 10 ;
-: 'SPACE' 32 ;
-: '\"' 34 ;
-: ':' 58 ;
-
-\\ CR prints a carriage return
-: CR '\\n' EMIT ;
-
-\\ SPACE prints a space
-: SPACE 'SPACE' EMIT ;
-
-\\ Primitive . (DOT) function doesn't follow with a blank, so redefine it to behave like FORTH.
-\\ Notice how we can trivially redefine existing functions.
-: . . SPACE ;
-
-\\ DUP, DROP are defined in assembly for speed, but this is how you might define them
-\\ in FORTH. Notice use of the scratch variables _X and _Y.
-\\ : DUP _X ! _X @ _X @ ;
-\\ : DROP _X ! ;
-
-\\ The 2... versions of the standard operators work on pairs of stack entries. They're not used
-\\ very commonly so not really worth writing in assembler. Here is how they are defined in FORTH.
-: 2DUP OVER OVER ;
-: 2DROP DROP DROP ;
-
-\\ More standard FORTH words.
-: 2* 2 * ;
-: 2/ 2 / ;
-
-\\ [ and ] allow you to break into immediate mode while compiling a word.
-: [ IMMEDIATE \\ define [ as an immediate word
- 0 STATE ! \\ go into immediate mode
- ;
+ .space BUFFER_SIZE
-: ]
- 1 STATE ! \\ go back to compile mode
- ;
+/*
+ START OF FORTH CODE ----------------------------------------------------------------------
-\\ LITERAL takes whatever is on the stack and compiles LIT <foo>
-: LITERAL IMMEDIATE
- ' LIT , \\ compile LIT
- , \\ compile the literal itself (from the stack)
- ;
+ We've now reached the stage where the FORTH system is running and self-hosting. All further
+ words can be written as FORTH itself, including words like IF, THEN, .", etc which in most
+ languages would be considered rather fundamental.
-\\ condition IF true-part THEN rest
-\\ compiles to:
-\\ condition 0BRANCH OFFSET true-part rest
-\\ where OFFSET is the offset of 'rest'
-\\ condition IF true-part ELSE false-part THEN
-\\ compiles to:
-\\ condition 0BRANCH OFFSET true-part BRANCH OFFSET2 false-part rest
-\\ where OFFSET if the offset of false-part and OFFSET2 is the offset of rest
-
-\\ IF is an IMMEDIATE word which compiles 0BRANCH followed by a dummy offset, and places
-\\ the address of the 0BRANCH on the stack. Later when we see THEN, we pop that address
-\\ off the stack, calculate the offset, and back-fill the offset.
-: IF IMMEDIATE
- ' 0BRANCH , \\ compile 0BRANCH
- HERE @ \\ save location of the offset on the stack
- 0 , \\ compile a dummy offset
-;
-
-: THEN IMMEDIATE
- DUP
- HERE @ SWAP - \\ calculate the offset from the address saved on the stack
- SWAP ! \\ store the offset in the back-filled location
-;
-
-: ELSE IMMEDIATE
- ' BRANCH , \\ definite branch to just over the false-part
- HERE @ \\ save location of the offset on the stack
- 0 , \\ compile a dummy offset
- SWAP \\ now back-fill the original (IF) offset
- DUP \\ same as for THEN word above
- HERE @ SWAP -
- SWAP !
-;
-
-\\ BEGIN loop-part condition UNTIL
-\\ compiles to:
-\\ loop-part condition 0BRANCH OFFSET
-\\ where OFFSET points back to the loop-part
-\\ This is like do { loop-part } while (condition) in the C language
-: BEGIN IMMEDIATE
- HERE @ \\ save location on the stack
-;
-
-: UNTIL IMMEDIATE
- ' 0BRANCH , \\ compile 0BRANCH
- HERE @ - \\ calculate the offset from the address saved on the stack
- , \\ compile the offset here
-;
-
-\\ BEGIN loop-part AGAIN
-\\ compiles to:
-\\ loop-part BRANCH OFFSET
-\\ where OFFSET points back to the loop-part
-\\ In other words, an infinite loop which can only be returned from with EXIT
-: AGAIN IMMEDIATE
- ' BRANCH , \\ compile BRANCH
- HERE @ - \\ calculate the offset back
- , \\ compile the offset here
-;
-
-\\ BEGIN condition WHILE loop-part REPEAT
-\\ compiles to:
-\\ condition 0BRANCH OFFSET2 loop-part BRANCH OFFSET
-\\ where OFFSET points back to condition (the beginning) and OFFSET2 points to after the whole piece of code
-\\ So this is like a while (condition) { loop-part } loop in the C language
-: WHILE IMMEDIATE
- ' 0BRANCH , \\ compile 0BRANCH
- HERE @ \\ save location of the offset2 on the stack
- 0 , \\ compile a dummy offset2
-;
-
-: REPEAT IMMEDIATE
- ' BRANCH , \\ compile BRANCH
- SWAP \\ get the original offset (from BEGIN)
- HERE @ - , \\ and compile it after BRANCH
- DUP
- HERE @ SWAP - \\ calculate the offset2
- SWAP ! \\ and back-fill it in the original location
-;
-
-\\ With the looping constructs, we can now write SPACES, which writes n spaces to stdout.
-: SPACES
- BEGIN
- SPACE \\ print a space
- 1- \\ until we count down to 0
- DUP 0=
- UNTIL
-;
-
-\\ .S prints the contents of the stack. Very useful for debugging.
-: .S
- DSP@ \\ get current stack pointer
- BEGIN
- DUP @ . \\ print the stack element
- 4+ \\ move up
- DUP S0 @ 4- = \\ stop when we get to the top
- UNTIL
- DROP
-;
-
-\\ DEPTH returns the depth of the stack.
-: DEPTH S0 @ DSP@ - ;
-
-\\ .\" is the print string operator in FORTH. Example: .\" Something to print\"
-\\ The space after the operator is the ordinary space required between words.
-\\ This is tricky to define because it has to do different things depending on whether
-\\ we are compiling or in immediate mode. (Thus the word is marked IMMEDIATE so it can
-\\ detect this and do different things).
-\\ In immediate mode we just keep reading characters and printing them until we get to
-\\ the next double quote.
-\\ In compile mode we have the problem of where we're going to store the string (remember
-\\ that the input buffer where the string comes from may be overwritten by the time we
-\\ come round to running the function). We store the string in the compiled function
-\\ like this:
-\\ LITSTRING, string length, string rounded up to 4 bytes, EMITSTRING, ...
-: .\" IMMEDIATE
- STATE @ \\ compiling?
- IF
- ' LITSTRING , \\ compile LITSTRING
- HERE @ \\ save the address of the length word on the stack
- 0 , \\ dummy length - we don't know what it is yet
- BEGIN
- KEY \\ get next character of the string
- DUP '\"' <>
- WHILE
- HERE @ !b \\ store the character in the compiled image
- HERE 1 +! \\ increment HERE pointer by 1 byte
- REPEAT
- DROP \\ drop the double quote character at the end
- DUP \\ get the saved address of the length word
- HERE @ SWAP - \\ calculate the length
- 4- \\ subtract 4 (because we measured from the start of the length word)
- SWAP ! \\ and back-fill the length location
- HERE @ \\ round up to next multiple of 4 bytes for the remaining code
- 3 +
- 3 INVERT AND
- HERE !
- ' EMITSTRING , \\ compile the final EMITSTRING
- ELSE
- \\ In immediate mode, just read characters and print them until we get
- \\ to the ending double quote. Much simpler than the above code!
- BEGIN
- KEY
- DUP '\"' = IF EXIT THEN
- EMIT
- AGAIN
- THEN
-;
-
-\\ While compiling, [COMPILE] WORD compiles WORD if it would otherwise be IMMEDIATE.
-: [COMPILE] IMMEDIATE
- WORD \\ get the next word
- FIND \\ find it in the dictionary
- >CFA \\ get its codeword
- , \\ and compile that
-;
-
-\\ RECURSE makes a recursive call to the current word that is being compiled.
-\\ Normally while a word is being compiled, it is marked HIDDEN so that references to the
-\\ same word within are calls to the previous definition of the word.
-: RECURSE IMMEDIATE
- LATEST @ >CFA \\ LATEST points to the word being compiled at the moment
- , \\ compile it
-;
-
-\\ ALLOT is used to allocate (static) memory when compiling. It increases HERE by
-\\ the amount given on the stack.
-: ALLOT HERE +! ;
-
-
-\\ Finally print the welcome prompt.
-.\" OK \"
-"
-
-_initbufftop:
- .align 4096
-buffend:
+ I used to append this here in the assembly file, but I got sick of fighting against gas's
+ crack-smoking (lack of) multiline string syntax. So now that is in a separate file called
+ jonesforth.f
-currkey:
- .int buffer
-bufftop:
- .int _initbufftop
+ If you don't already have that file, download it from http://annexia.org/forth in order
+ to continue the tutorial.
+*/
+
+/* END OF jonesforth.S */
git.annexia.org / jonesforth.git / blobdiff